Inclusive Education beyond Legal Mandates: Institutional Capacity, Vulnerability, and Unequal Learning Opportunities

Abstract

Inclusive education has become a central commitment in global education agendas, particularly concerning students with disabilities and other vulnerable groups. Despite strong legal and policy mandates, inclusive education often remains unevenly implemented. This article examines the structural limitations of inclusive education policies by focusing on institutional capacity and social vulnerability. Drawing on the Indonesian context, the study analyzes how schools interpret and operationalize inclusive education within resource-constrained environments. The findings demonstrate that inclusion is frequently reduced to administrative compliance rather than meaningful participation, as schools face shortages of trained teachers, inadequate infrastructure, and limited inter-agency coordination. Consequently, students with special needs often remain physically present but socially excluded from learning processes. This article argues that inclusive education cannot be achieved through legal mandates alone but requires sustained institutional investment and policy designs sensitive to social realities. By highlighting the interaction between policy ideals and institutional constraints, the study contributes to broader international debates on educational inequality and the limits of rights-based policy approaches.